Natural Products: Types Measured

'Ornamental fish’ are species harvested and marketed for use primarily in home aquariums, but also in commercial aquariums. Every year, more than one billion ornamental fish are traded globally, 15 to 20 million of which are members of marine species (Weiner 2005). The number of marine species traded has been estimated at between 1,400 and 8,000, most of which are wild caught, unlike traded freshwater fish species, 90% of which are farmed (FAO 2005-2012; Whittington 2007).

Export data were drawn from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Global Commodities database for all available years, which included 1976-2007 for ornamental fish. Data for the subcategories ‘Fish for culture including ova, fingerlings, etc.’ and ‘Ornamental freshwater fish’ were excluded. The two categories used were “Ornamental Salt Water Fish” and “Ornamental Fish Not Elsewhere Indicated (NEI).” For the monetary value data, nominal dollars ("observed measure unit - US Dollar"), as reported by the FAO, were converted into constant 2008 USD using CPI adjustment data (Sahr 2011; http://oregonstate.edu/cla/polisci/sahr/sahr).

Seaweeds and other marine algae can be harvested in their natural habitat or cultivated in coastal waters or in tanks on land.

In the mid 1980s, seaweed farming became increasingly popular (vs. harvest from wild stocks) due to a significant rise in demand (Crawford 2002).

Information used by the Ocean Health Index to determine harvest and value for seaweed and plants is from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Global Commodities Database, which contains data on exports of natural products by each country from 1976-2008.

Data categories used were: Agar agar in blocks, Agar agar in powder, Agar agar in strips, Agar agar nei, Carrageen (Chondrus crispus), Green laver, Hizikia fusiforme (brown algae), Kelp, Kelp meal, Laver dry, Laver nei, Laver smoked, Other brown algae (Laminaria, Eisenia/ Ecklonia), Other edible seaweeds, Other green algae (Ulva, Enteromorpha), Other inedible seaweeds, Other red algae, Other seaweeds and aquatic plants and products thereof, Rock laver, and Undaria pinnafitida (brown algae).

Sustainability of the harvest was measured as the intensity of harvest per km2 of a country’s potentially harvestable habitat. Exposure values were rescaled to between 0-1 using the global maximum intensity of harvest as the maximum value and 0 as the minimum value.

For the monetary value data, nominal dollars as reported by FAO ("observed measure unit - US Dollar") were converted into constant 2008 USD using CPI adjustment data (Sahr 2011 -http://oregonstate.edu/cla/polisci/sahr/sahr).

Sponges are a diverse aquatic invertebrate phylum, with over 7000 living species found in a wide range of marine environments. A few species (~150) live in freshwater and brackish water, but the vast majority are marine, with different species found from tropical coral reefs to arctic waters, and from coastal, shallow waters to the deepest parts of the ocean (Lavrov 2009; Hogg et al. 2010).

Sponges are essential components for a healthy ecosystem in terms of their high biomass and water filtration and nitrification abilities. They also contribute to the biodiversity of habitats by providing shelter and breeding grounds for numerous marine species and microorganisms.

Although the increased use of artificial sponges has led to a significant decrease in commercial fishing for sponges, overfishing, disease and rising sea temperatures have all contributed to declines in local sponge populations over the past century.

The Ocean Health Index measurements are based on data for the number of tons of sponges exported on a per country basis. The intensity of harvest per km² of potential habitat for a country was determined according to export data (1976-2008) from the FAO Global Commodities database using the categories Natural Sponges Not Elsewhere Indicated (nei), Natural Sponges other than raw, Natural Sponges raw, and coral and rocky reef extent data from Halpern et al. 2008.

For the monetary value data, nominal dollars ("observed measure unit - US Dollar"), as reported by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), were converted into constant 2008 USD using CPI adjustment data (Sahr 2011 http://oregonstate.edu/cla/polisci/sahr/sahr).

‘Seashells’ are the hard outer casings (exoskeletons) made by marine animals for the protection and support of internal organs. Although a number of marine groups, including Crustaceans (e.g. crabs, lobsters), Echinoderms (e.g. starfish, sea urchins), Polychaete worms, and others make exoskeletons, the term seashell typically refers to the shells produced by marine Molluscs (e.g. clams, mussels, snails, conchs etc.); this is how the term was used in the Ocean Health Index.

Seashells have been traded and collected for centuries for use in jewelry, decoration, religious ceremonies, and currency. Today, trade in shells, pearls, and shell products remain an important part of many local economies.

The Ocean Health Index measured the harvest of shells in terms of tons exported per country according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Global Commodities database (1976-2007), using the listings for Miscellaneous Corals and Shells, Abalone Shells, Mother of Pearl shells, Oyster shells, Sea snail shells, Trochus shells and ‘Shells not otherwise listed’.

The intensity of harvesting (exposure) was calculated as tons exported per km² of potential habitat. Potential habitat was estimated as area of coral reef and rocky reef using data from Halpern et al. (2008). Exposure values were rescaled to between 0-1 using the global maximum intensity of harvest as the maximum value and 0 as the minimum value.

For the monetary value data, nominal dollars, as reported by FAO ("observed measure unit - US Dollar"), were converted into constant 2008 USD using CPI adjustment data (Sahr 2011; http://oregonstate.edu/cla/polisci/sahr/sahr).

Fish oil is a product of the fishing industry that is most commonly derived from small, pelagic species of fish that have low market value for direct consumption (e.g. anchovies, herring, sardines) (Tacon 2006). The oil can be produced either from the whole fish or from its liver, and it is most often sold as an ingredient for aquaculture feed, but is also used for human dietary supplements.

The fish species that are used to produce fish oil are primarily wild-caught, and in many cases their stocks are being depleted due to unsustainable fishing practices. The fact that costs for fish, energy, fish processing and fishery resources are continuing to rise has also led to a decrease in the amount of fish oil and fishmeal used worldwide. As a result, some nations are currently exploring alternate methods of producing fish oil, which include utilizing krill populations. As krill themselves are a primary food source for many marine species, depleting their populations could affect ecosystem and food web structure. Certain types of algae, yeast and plants are also being considered as alternative sources for human dietary supplements and for possible for use as aquaculture feed.

Total production of fish oil in 2006 was 0.943 million tonnes, of which 88.5% was used as an additive to industrially compounded feed for aquaculture of shrimp and fish (FAO, cited in Tacon and Metian 2008).

Data were drawn from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Global Commodities database for 1976-2008, using the following categories: Alaska pollock oil nei, Anchoveta oil, Capelin oil, Clupeoid oils nei, Cod liver oil, Fish body oils nei, Fish liver oils nei, Gadoid liver oils nei, Hake liver oil, Halibuts liver oils, Herring oil, Jack mackerel oil, Menhaden oil, Pilchard oil, Redfish oil, Sardine oil, Shark liver oil, Shark oil, Squid oil.

The Status of fish oil production was calculated as the current harvest level relative to its (buffered) peak reference point, multiplied by the sustainability of the harvest. 

Sustainability was calculated primarily by the weighted proportion of species harvested sustainably, i.e. the number of species in each exploitation category (developing, fully exploited, overexploited, collapsed or rebuilding) as defined by FAO and Sea Around Us (Kleisner and Pauly 2011), and weighted by category. 

Trend was calculated as the change of Status over the five most recent years of data.