Pathogens
Pathogens are small disease-causing microbes,
including bacteria, viruses, fungi and some parasites. A single liter of ocean
water can carry up to 1 billion bacteria and 10 billion viruses.
While the majority of pathogens pose little to no health risk, some can be harmful to humans, marine species and ecosystems. Harmful pathogens usually enter the ocean because of poor sanitation practices, runoff of animal waste, and vessel discharge.
Countries that are poverty-stricken, war-torn or politically unstable are generally more susceptible to pathogenic diseases like typhoid fever, dysentery and cholera because of poor infrastructure, lower standards of sanitation or hygiene, and inadequate maintenance of water supplies (Sedas 2007).
While the majority of pathogens pose little to no health risk, some can be harmful to humans, marine species and ecosystems. Harmful pathogens usually enter the ocean because of poor sanitation practices, runoff of animal waste, and vessel discharge.
Countries that are poverty-stricken, war-torn or politically unstable are generally more susceptible to pathogenic diseases like typhoid fever, dysentery and cholera because of poor infrastructure, lower standards of sanitation or hygiene, and inadequate maintenance of water supplies (Sedas 2007).
Sources Of Pathogens
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Which Goals Does This Affect?
How Was It Measured?
Pathogens were measured on a
country-wide basis according to the population’s access to improved sanitation
facilities that effectively prevent contact with excreta. The raw data were derived from the World
Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Joint Monitoring
Programme, 2011. Percentages per country were based on a maximum target that would
indicate that 100% of the population had access to improved sanitation
facilities.
What Are The Impacts?
ECOLOGICAL IMPACT
Marine animals can become sick or
die when exposed to pathogens. Coral reefs are also particularly susceptible to
bacterial infections, which can inhibit their ability to provide a wide range
of ecosystem services. Additionally, overuse of antibiotics in humans and
livestock has led to the development of strains of antibiotic-resistant pathogens.
A 2008 study found that 78% of marine animals off the coast of New England had contracted at least one antibiotic-resistant bacterium, and over 50% had contracted two or more antibiotic-resistant bacteria (WHO 2008).
A 2008 study found that 78% of marine animals off the coast of New England had contracted at least one antibiotic-resistant bacterium, and over 50% had contracted two or more antibiotic-resistant bacteria (WHO 2008).
HUMAN HEALTH IMPACT
Humans can become ill from bathing
in or ingesting contaminated water, or consuming contaminated seafood. The most
widespread and harmful pathogenic illness is cholera, caused by Vibrio cholera, which causes severe
diarrhea and dehydration and can be fatal if left untreated. V. fulnificus and V. parahaemolyticus are two other species in the cholera family
that are commonly found in mangroves, estuaries and marshes. Exposure to these
pathogens through raw/undercooked seafood or infection through wounds can
cause vomiting, diarrhea, and potentially fatal infections in humans.
ECONOMIC IMPACT
Pathogens threaten jobs and income
in the seafood, tourism and recreation industries. Fear of contamination lowers
consumer confidence and closed beaches reduce attendance. The health costs of
pathogenic infections are also great. In Los Angeles and Orange County,
California, fecal contamination at beaches causes between 627,800 and 1,479,200
additional gastrointestinal illnesses each year, generating a public health
cost of US $21 to $51 million (Given 2006).
What Has Been Done?
Royal Caribbean Cruise Line Commits to Cleaner Water
In 1999, Royal Caribbean Cruise Lines (RCCL) was convicted of
21 felony counts in six different U.S. courts for dumping oil and hazardous chemicals
illegally. The company was required to pay a criminal fine of US $18 milllion,
the largest ever to be paid by a cruise line in connection with polluting U.S.
waters (U.S. Department of Justice 1999).
In 2004, under pressure from Oceana’s eleventh-month Stop Cruise
Pollution campaign, Royal Caribbean committed to install Advanced Wastewater
Purification (AWP) systems on all of its ships. Wastewater processed by AWP
technology exceeds all international ship wastewater discharge standards. As of
April 2009, nine ships were outfitted with AWP systems, and thirteen more were
expected to be outfitted with AWP technology by the end of the year (RCCL
2009).
Get More Information
United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA): Oceans & Human Health Initiative
Research project identifying and
investigating which terrestrial pathogens are affecting ocean health.
World Health Organization (WHO)
WHO report on water sanitation addressing exposure and risk
of disease.
Woods Hole Center for Oceans & Human Health (WHCOHH)
The WHCOHH addresses the
distribution of pathogens in regard to oceanic processes.
Getting a Grip on Cruise Ship Pollution
A review of cruise ship pollutant
issues prepared by Ross A. Klein, PhD, for Friends of the Earth. December 1,
2009.
References
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D. (2010, September 27). Ocean Viruses: Hidden Movers and Shakers of the Earth
System. University of Arizona News.
Retrieved from http://uanews.org/node/34439 -
United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 1998. Regional
Sea Reports and Studies (No. 167). Washington, DC: UNEP.
PHOTO(S): © Keith A. Ellenbogen