Natural Products: Types Measured

'Ornamental fish’ are species harvested and marketed for use primarily in home aquariums, but also in commercial aquariums. Every year, more than one billion ornamental fish are traded globally, 15 to 20 million of which are members of marine species (Weiner 2005). The number of marine species traded has been estimated at between 1,400 and 8,000, most of which are wild caught, unlike traded freshwater fish species, 90% of which are farmed (FAO 2005-2012; Whittington 2007).  

How Was It Measured?

Export data are drawn from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Global Commodities database for the most recent years available for ornamental fish. Data for the subcategories ‘Fish for culture including ova, fingerlings, etc.’ and ‘Ornamental freshwater fish’ are excluded. The two categories used are “Ornamental Salt Water Fish” and “Ornamental Fish Not Elsewhere Indicated (NEI).” For the monetary value data, nominal dollars ("observed measure unit - US Dollar"), as reported by the FAO, were converted into constant 2008 USD using CPI adjustment data (Sahr 2011).

Various brown, green and red algae as well other marine plants are used to make stabilizers and thickeners for foods, cosmetics and industrial products as well as nutritional supplements and condiments. Seaweeds and other marine algae can be harvested in their natural habitat or cultivated in coastal waters or in tanks on land.

In the mid 1980s, seaweed farming became increasingly popular (vs. harvest from wild stocks) due to a significant rise in demand (Crawford 2002).

How Was It Measured?

Information used by the Ocean Health Index to determine harvest and value for seaweed and plants is from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Global Commodities Database, which contains data on exports of natural products by each country. The most recent data available are used.

Data categories used were: Agar agar in blocks, Agar agar in powder, Agar agar in strips, Agar agar nei, Carrageen (Chondrus crispus), Green laver, Hizikia fusiforme (brown algae), Kelp, Kelp meal, Laver dry, Laver nei, Laver smoked, Other brown algae (Laminaria, Eisenia/ Ecklonia), Other edible seaweeds, Other green algae (Ulva, Enteromorpha), Other inedible seaweeds, Other red algae, Other seaweeds and aquatic plants and products thereof, Rock laver, and Undaria pinnafitida (brown algae).

Sustainability of the harvest was measured as the intensity of harvest per km² of a country’s potentially harvestable habitat. Exposure values were rescaled to between 0-1 using the global maximum intensity of harvest as the maximum value and 0 as the minimum value.

For the monetary value data, nominal dollars as reported by FAO ("observed measure unit - US Dollar") were converted into constant 2008 USD using CPI adjustment data (Sahr 2011).

Sponges are primarily harvested for use as bath sponges. Some are also used medically, to dress wounds, as contraceptives or to absorb menstrual flow. Chemical compounds found in marine sponges, probably made by the bacteria that inhabit their tissues, have provided important medicines for cancer, HIV/AIDS and other illnesses. 

Sponges are a diverse aquatic invertebrate phylum, with over 7000 living species found in a wide range of marine environments. A few species (~150) live in freshwater and brackish water, but the vast majority are marine, with different species found from tropical coral reefs to arctic waters, and from coastal, shallow waters to the deepest parts of the ocean (Lavrov 2009; Hogg et al. 2010).

Sponges are essential components for a healthy ecosystem in terms of their high biomass and water filtration and nitrification abilities. They also contribute to the biodiversity of habitats by providing shelter and breeding grounds for numerous marine species and microorganisms.

Although the increased use of artificial sponges has led to a significant decrease in commercial fishing for sponges, overfishing, disease and rising sea temperatures have all contributed to declines in local sponge populations over the past century.

How Was It Measured?

The Ocean Health Index measurements are based on data for the number of tons of sponges exported on a per country basis. The intensity of harvest per km² of potential habitat for a country was determined according to export data (1976-2008) from the FAO Global Commodities database using the categories Natural Sponges Not Elsewhere Indicated (nei), Natural Sponges other than raw, Natural Sponges raw, and coral and rocky reef extent data from Halpern et al. 2008.

For the monetary value data, nominal dollars ("observed measure unit - US Dollar"), as reported by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), were converted into constant 2008 USD using CPI adjustment data (Sahr 2011).

‘Seashells’ are the hard outer casings (exoskeletons) made by marine animals for the protection and support of internal organs. Although a number of marine groups, including Crustaceans (e.g. crabs, lobsters), Echinoderms (e.g. starfish, sea urchins), Polychaete worms, and others make exoskeletons, the term seashell typically refers to the shells produced by marine Molluscs (e.g. clams, mussels, snails, conchs etc.); this is how the term was used in the Ocean Health Index.

Seashells have been traded and collected for centuries for use in jewelry, decoration, religious ceremonies, and currency. Today, trade in shells, pearls, and shell products remain an important part of many local economies.

How Was It Measured?

The Ocean Health Index measured the harvest of shells in terms of tons exported per country according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Global Commodities database (1976-2010), using the listings for Miscellaneous Corals and Shells, Abalone Shells, Mother of Pearl shells, Oyster shells, Sea snail shells, Trochus shells and ‘Shells not otherwise listed’.

The intensity of harvesting (exposure) was calculated as tons exported per km² of potential habitat. Potential habitat was estimated as area of coral reef and rocky reef using data from Halpern et al. (2008). Exposure values were rescaled to between 0-1 using the global maximum intensity of harvest as the maximum value and 0 as the minimum value.

For the monetary value data, nominal dollars, as reported by FAO ("observed measure unit - US Dollar"), were converted into constant 2008 USD using CPI adjustment data (Sahr 2011).

Fish oil is a product of the fishing industry that is most commonly derived from small, pelagic species of fish that have low market value for direct consumption (e.g. anchovies, herring, sardines) (Tacon 2006). The oil can be produced either from the whole fish or from its liver, and it is most often sold as an ingredient for aquaculture feed, but is also used for human dietary supplements.

The fish species that are used to produce fish oil are primarily wild-caught, and in many cases their stocks are being depleted due to unsustainable fishing practices.  Countries do not specify the species they use to produce fish oil, so sustainability is estimated based on the overall stock status for the species harvested in each country, as detailed above in the main 'How Was It Measured?' section.  

Rising costs for fish, energy, fish processing and fishery resources have led to a decrease in the amount of fish oil and fishmeal used worldwide. As a result, some nations are currently exploring alternate methods of producing fish oil, which include utilizing krill populations. Since krill themselves are a primary food source for many marine species, depleting their populations could affect ecosystem and food web structure. Certain types of algae, yeast and plants are also being considered as alternative sources for human dietary supplements and for possible for use as aquaculture feed.

Total production of fish oil in 2006 was 0.943 million tonnes, of which 88.5% was used as an additive to industrially compounded feed for aquaculture of shrimp and fish (FAO, cited in Tacon and Metian 2008).

How Was It Measured?

Data were drawn from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Global Commodities database for 1976-2010, using the following categories: Alaska pollock oil nei, Anchoveta oil, Capelin oil, Clupeoid oils nei, Cod liver oil, Fish body oils nei, Fish liver oils nei, Gadoid liver oils nei, Hake liver oil, Halibuts liver oils, Herring oil, Jack mackerel oil, Menhaden oil, Pilchard oil, Redfish oil, Sardine oil, Shark liver oil, Shark oil, Squid oil.

The Status of fish oil production was calculated as the current harvest level relative to its (buffered) peak reference point, multiplied by the sustainability of the harvest. 

To calculate sustainability for Fish Oil, each fish stock is assigned an exploitation status based on its biomass relative to its calculated biomass at maximum sustainable yield (B/BMSY) and multiplied by a penalty factor when B deviates from BMSY by more than 5%. Overharvesting is penalized by successively greater penalties the smaller B is relative to BMSY.  Underharvesting is also penalized when B > BMSY, but only half as severely as overharvesting. The sustainability of a country’s Fish Oil exports is expressed as the yield-weighted sustainability of its fishery stocks. See Fisheries: Status for details on how stock status is calculated. 

Trend was calculated as the change of Status over the five most recent years of data.

The corals assessed in the Natural Products goal all come from tropical coral reefs, which live in warm, clear water at relatively shallow depths. ‘Hard’ corals use calcium carbonate from seawater to synthesize a hard, mineral protective shell around each polyp. These exoskeletons, along with shells formed by coralline algae, mollusks and tubeworms, spicules made by sponges, and shells of other calcifying species form the structural foundation of coral reefs. Corals catch plankton with their tentacles, but most of their nutrition comes from photosynthetic algae that live in their tissues, using the coral’s waste products for their own nutrition and feeding the corals with sugars and other nutritious compounds that leak through their cell membranes.

When healthy, these reefs are intricately patterned carpets of life containing countless nooks and crannies inhabited by representatives of nearly every major taxonomic group. These tightly integrated systems providing food and shelter to a spectacular variety of fish and invertebrate species, including many of commercial value.

How Was It Measured?

Most of the trade in corals is classified under ISSCFC codes 291.1.5.10, ‘Coral and the like’ and 291.1.5.90, ‘Miscellaneous corals and shells.’  Explanatory HS notes define coral is the calcareous skeleton of a marine polyp that is generally used for articles of jewelry and indicated that the category includes coral that is ‘unworked’ (that is, only the outer crust has been removed) or ‘simply prepared’ (that is, not having undergone processes extending beyond simple cutting).  This category does not include live corals exported for aquarium use and, in fact, no data on that trade are available.

What Are The Impacts?

Ecological Impact

Overharvesting for coral as a natural product probably may not be extensive enough to destroy reef structure, but can harm target species.  

Populations of rare precious corals used for jewelry, such as black coral, gold coral and red coral, can easily be extirpated by overharvesting, especially because most grow very slowly.

Coral reefs are affected by many other pressures, including rising sea temperature, ocean acidification (lowered pH), destructive fishing practices (dynamite and cyanide), breakage by natural causes (hurricanes) or carelessness (boat anchors, trampling by snorkelers), pollution and sedimentation.  

Human Health Impact

Harvesting coral for Natural Product purposes may not be sufficiently extensive to impact human health. The products made from coral are mainly ornamental. 

Economic Impact

The very high economic value of tropical coral reefs derives from their environmental services, primarily food production, coastal protection and biodiversity. The economic benefit from coral harvests for jewelry or other Natural Products use is comparatively small, though it may be locally important. Such harvests are not likely to reduce the ability of tropical coral reefs to deliver ecosystem services, though they have the potential to decrease biodiversity locally.